Use of biofuels in the EU

Generally speaking, liquid biofuels are used pure or mixed with fossil fuels. From a technical point of view, Biofuels can be mixed with conventional diesel and gasoline and used in traditional engines without major changes in rates of up to 100% for biodiesel and 25% for anhydrous ethanol. In practice, however, the guarantees afforded by manufacturers of vehicles, engines and equipment (catalysts, particulate filters, etc.) still remain very limited and prove to be one of the main difficulties in the use of biofuels.

The main issue is actually more of a strategic nature on the part of vehicle manufacturers. A fuel must meet certain requirements to ensure a proper functioning of the engine and satisfy the emission limits prescribed by law (EURO norms). Manufacturers, however, are not able or do not provide the means to ensure compliance with the emission limits of biofuels and conventional fuels mixtures. Without a strong pressure from the market, manufacturers do not have any advantage in giving more guarantees than necessary.

Strategies regarding the introduction and use of biofuels in the EU are developing through the transcription of Directive 2003/96/EC into national policy of the various Member States, in particular by the reduction or exemption from excise duty granted to biofuels. Depending on the country, the legal context and/or the policies to promote biofuels, various strategies regarding the use of biofuels have emerged. This paragraph is intended to describe the main alternatives of biodiesel and bioethanol use, and then define the legal context relating to the use of biofuels in the EU.

Mixtures of biodiesel and ordinary diesel are usually described using the terminology Bx, where the letter x indicates the percentage of biodiesel (by volume) incorporated into diesel. The term B5 for instance refers to a mixture consisting of 5% vol. of biodiesel and 95% vol. of conventional diesel.

The nomenclature applies similarly to mixtures of bioethanol and conventional gasoline, usually described using the terminology Ex, where the letter x indicates the percentage of bioethanol (by volume) incorporated into gasoline. The term E5 for instance refers to a mixture of 5% vol. of bioethanol and 95% vol. of conventional gasoline.

Thanks to its physico-chemical characteristics similar to those of conventional diesel, biodiesel as a fuel does not represent a major problem and generally does not require any change to the engine, apart from the possible replacement of some seals and hoses. Biodiesel is indeed an excellent solvent and could potentially damage some rubber seals and natural polyurethane foams, as well as some paintings.

Technically, biodiesel can be used either pure or mixed with conventional diesel. In accordance with Directive 2003/30/EC, the large majority of EU Member States are considering the use of biodiesel in the form of B5, the mixture being distributed to the general public in service stations. This approach offers the advantage of improving the lubricating power of the fuel blend, which sometimes is a problem with conventional diesel given the sharp limitation on the level of sulphur in diesel fuels (sulfur is an excellent lubricant). In various countries, other uses are however considered, especially in the form of B20, B30 and B100 (pure biodiesel) in vehicle fleets, primarily urban (France, Austria, Germany, Czech Republic).

Bioethanol is not entirely compatible with ordinary gasoline and its use as a fuel requires a few precautions. Ethanol indeed is slightly corrosive and can damage some light metals. Like biodiesel, it is an excellent solvent and could potentially dissolve certain types of elastomers. It is therefore essential to ensure the compatibility of the materials used in distribution and fuel supply systems before using this type of biofuel. This control is designed to avoid any deterioration of the engine and equipment, and any contamination of the fuel (gums, particles, etc.) which could cause a temporary malfunction of the engine (e.g. blockage of the fuel line filter).

Bioethanol can be used as fuel (or additive) in a variety of ways, the most common of which are mentioned here:

• Hydrous ethanol [1], in ethanol engines or modified diesel engines;
• Anhydrous ethanol (0-25% vol.) blended with gasoline in traditional vehicles [2]
• Anhydrous ethanol (0-85% vol.) blended with gasoline in flexible fuel vehicles (FFVs) [3]
• ETBE (0-15% vol.) blended with conventional gasoline [4]
• Anhydrous ethanol (0-3% vol.) blended with diesel without additives [5]
• Anhydrous ethanol (10-15% vol.) mixed with diesel, in the presence of an emulsifier [6]
• Esterol [7]

Within the EU, three of the above alternatives are actually developing on a large scale, namely the channels E5, E85, and ETBE.

The development of ETBE was initiated in France since the early 1990's, by the oil company Elf (now TotalFinaElf), in its refinery in Feyzin. Its properties (high octane, low vapour pressure, perfect tolerance to water, etc.) makes it a popular fuel amongst refiners, comparable to MTBE, which is widely used as an oxygenate and octane enhancer worldwide. More recently, Spain has also opted for this alternative. ETBE today represents the prevailing use of fuel bioethanol in the EU. The production of ETBE, however, requires appropriate infrastructures and, above all, a raw material (naphtha) that only large refineries can afford at an acceptable cost. In addition, the production of ETBE is limited by the production capacity of isobutylene in the oil industry.

It should also be noticed that for the first time in 2004, France granted a quota (although limited) of 15 Ml for fuel-ethanol directly incorporated to gasoline. With the maximum capacity of ETBE facilities being reached already, quotas granted to the direct blending of ethanol in gasoline amounted to 90 Ml in 2005, 170 Ml in 2006, 430 Ml in 2007, 910 Ml in 2008, 1'100 Ml in 2009 and 2010. In a similar way, Spain has also started considering the direct blending of bioethanol and gasoline. Perhaps one must understand, in these choices, a strategic change of the European leaders of bioethanol production.

Sweden, on the other hand, has relied solely on the direct incorporation of bioethanol in gasoline, at a rate of 5% vol., in accordance with Directive 2003/30/EC. Sweden, now one of the largest consumers of bioethanol in the EU with more than 420 Ml/yr (of which nearly ¾ are imported), has also launched an ambitious programme for the promotion of E85 and the development of Flexible Fuel Vehicles (FFVs). Today, there are more than 1'400 service stations distributing E85 and more than 170'000 FFVs, of which almost 58'000 sold in 2008 [8].

Under Directive 2003/30/EC, the European Commission authorizes the incorporation of biodiesel in diesel and bioethanol in gasoline at up to 5% vol. for fuel blends complying with EN 590 and EN 228 standards respectively. As a result, the guarantees from vehicle manufacturers with such fuel blends are maintained automatically.

Since 2004, biodiesel marketed in the EU must comply with standard EN 14214. Given the current specifications of the standard, the use of biodiesel is in practice limited to rape methyl ester (RME). According to the Biomass Action Plan however, the standard should be reviewed in the near future in order to open up the market to other vegetable oil methyl esters (VOME).

In practice, the distribution of biofuels to the general public is currently mainly limited to the following fuel blends:

• mixture of 5% vol. bioethanol and 15% vol. gasoline
• mixture of 85% vol. bioethanol and 15% vol. gasoline
• mixture of ETBE (up to 15% vol.) and gasoline
• mixture of 5% vol. biodiesel and 95% vol. diesel

If the guarantees from manufacturers are automatically maintained for the fuel blends above, they are however often canceled as soon as the blends are outside the legal framework. The position on the subject varies from one manufacturer to the other and even from one country to another for the same manufacturer. In Germany, UFOP (Union zur Förderung von Oel-und Proteinpflanzen) regularly publishes the respective positions of the various vehicle manufacturers regarding biodiesel use [9].

As a general rule, manufacturers do not provide guarantees above 5% vol. biodiesel or bioethanol on vehicles in use (as opposed to new vehicles). In such a situation, the user himself must assume the risk or take out additional insurance to cover potential specific damage associated with the use of biodiesel or bioethanol. Most vehicle fleet operators contacted in France and Switzerland (public transport companies, conurbations, etc.), however, do insist on the possibilities of obtaining guarantees up to 30-100% vol. biodiesel and/or 10-15% vol. bioethanol on new vehicles, by specifying explicitly these conditions in the calls for tender.